Experts are sounding the alarm over what they describe as an escalating global crisis, as the number of women behind bars moves toward one million. Across the world, incarcerated women, many of whom face sexual violence, forced labor, and widespread neglect, remain largely invisible and unprotected.

Although women make up between 2% and 9% of national prison populations, their incarceration rate has surged dramatically. Since 2000, the number of women in prison has increased by 57%, far outpacing the 22% rise among men.

“We are facing a global crisis,” said Olivia Rope, executive director at Penal Reform International. “If you look at the rate of growth compared to men in prison, it is really alarming. Women are often an afterthought, and they face very harsh, difficult conditions where their needs are unmet in most cases.”

Investigations conducted by The Guardian uncovered widespread abuse, including beatings, sexual exploitation, and forced labor, often imposed on women incarcerated for low-level or petty offenses.

Fifteen years after Bangkok Rules, progress remains limited

The UN adopted the Bangkok Rules 15 years ago, establishing the first international standards for the treatment of women prisoners and alternatives to incarceration.

But experts say implementation has been uneven and in many cases disregarded.

While some incremental progress has been made, many provisions remain sidelined, said Rope. “It is not acceptable [that these rules are being flouted], and we’re probably in the hardest spot we have been for the last 15 years in terms of ensuring accountability.”

Poverty, discrimination, and punitive laws fuel rising imprisonment

Economic hardship, gender-based violence, and discriminatory legal systems are driving the rapid growth in women’s incarceration worldwide. Women are disproportionately arrested for petty theft, including stealing food for their children, begging, drug-related offenses, and activities linked to the informal economy.

According to the newest World Female Imprisonment List, more than 733,000 women and girls are currently behind bars, though experts warn the true figure is likely higher due to weak or absent reporting in many countries.

The United States holds the world’s largest population of imprisoned women, with 174,607. China follows with 145,000. England and Wales have 3,566 incarcerated women, 4% of the total prison population, and about 72% were serving sentences for non-violent offenses in 2020, according to the Prison Reform Trust. Across Europe, 94,472 women are imprisoned, while Australia holds 3,743, roughly 8% of its overall prison population.

A system designed for men leaves women at greater risk

Women encounter distinct challenges in facilities that were never designed to meet their needs. High rates of mental health conditions and histories of abuse are common among women in prison, yet services remain limited in many regions. In Europe, the World Health Organization reports that women in custody die by suicide at nine times the rate of the general population.

For survivors of trauma, routine procedures such as strip-searches can be deeply distressing, while overcrowding, poor lighting, cramped spaces, and harsh architecture often worsen anxiety and fear.

Many of these women should not be incarcerated at all, argues Sabrina Mahtani, a Zambian-British lawyer and member of Women Beyond Walls, a global organization challenging the imprisonment of women and girls. “After 20 years of working with women in prison, and seeing how this plays out across the world, I don’t think that prison works. It’s really harmful, and I think we need to radically rethink the way we do justice.”

She added, “Most of these women don’t represent a danger to society, and so we should be looking at other options. We still somehow believe that prison is a place of rehabilitation where bad people go in and come out good. We’re seeing that vulnerable and marginalised people go in and come out more traumatised.”

Far-reaching consequences for families, children

The impact of women’s incarceration extends far beyond prison walls. Many are the primary or sole caregivers for their children.

An estimated 1.45 million children globally have a mother in prison, a disruption that often results in families breaking apart, said Rope. “When a mother goes to prison, the family usually falls apart and the children have to go to social services or other family. It’s a much bigger impact [than a man going to prison].”

Pregnant women frequently face inadequate medical care, with some forced to give birth alone in cells or restrained in hospital beds while male guards watch.

Sexual violence, exploitation, and forced labor remain widespread

Sexual abuse in women’s prisons is pervasive, particularly in conflict-affected areas. Reports include cases where women are taken out of their cells at night and prostituted. In India, female prisoners are reportedly “supplied” to male inmates, and sexual abuse is so widespread that hundreds of children have been born in custody.

Forced labor is also common. Women in many countries are required to work inside prisons, often for little or no pay, performing cleaning and maintenance tasks. The lack of oversight raises concerns about exploitation, especially where prison labor intersects with private industry. In Cambodia, women at one facility were found to be illegally producing garments for export.

Efforts to monitor conditions are hampered by the secrecy surrounding prisons worldwide. Accurate data is often difficult to obtain, said Helen Fair, a research fellow at the Institute for Criminal Policy Research who compiles the World Female Imprisonment List. “The availability of prison population data generally is pretty thin, so there are big gaps,” she said.