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Rare earth elements (REEs) comprise a collection of 17 essential elements with a wide spectrum of applications, from lasers and military hardware to the magnets that drive electric vehicles, wind turbines, and consumer electronics like semiconductors, computers, and phones, among others.

Understanding rare earth elements; their evolution

The metals are the cornerstone of rapidly advancing technologies, sparking global competition and geopolitical tensions. In this comprehensive guide, we delve into the significance of REEs, their diverse applications, and the pivotal role they play in today's world.

Over the past few decades, rare earth elements have transformed into highly valuable geoeconomic assets, wielding substantial influence in global geopolitics. Their ascent parallels technological advancements and the Industrial Revolution, making them key drivers of the balance of powers on the world stage.

Read more: China hits back on US chip war, restricts export of some rare elements

The tech race and China's leverage

As the global race to assert dominance in the chip industry has surged in recent years, fear of security events has become the main driver for nations to try and secure a sustainable supply chain for these vital materials.

With that in mind, while REEs are relatively widely available in nature, their low concentration across different regions and abundance in others, made them claim the title of being rare.

The primary global source of these prized elements remains firmly rooted in China. As of 2022, the Asian giant held a substantial 70% share of the world's rare earth mining output.

Meanwhile, the United States is heavily dependent on China as a source for its REEs, which accounted to 74% of total US imports of the elements between 2018 and 2021.

Read more: China curbs exports on semiconductor metals gallium, germanium, drones

Dive into REE applications

Here is a focused list of the paramount rare earth metals that lie at the heart of the ongoing technological competition:

Antimony

Top producers by rank: China, Russia, and Tajikistan.

Here are some of its most important uses across industries:

Semiconductors: Antimony is used to improve electrical conductivity in the production of semiconductors, particularly in the manufacture of diodes and infrared detectors.

Batteries: The element is widely used in the production of lead-acid batteries, which are commonly used in vehicles and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems to improve performance and durability.

Dysprosium

Top producers by rank: China almost has a full monopoly on this mineral.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Nuclear Reactors: Dysprosium is used in nuclear reactors to regulate the rate of nuclear reactions and manage the release of energy.

Hydrogen Storage: Its alloys are used in hydrogen storage materials, which could be important for clean energy applications.

Green Energy: The chemical plays an indispensable role in clean energy technologies, such as wind turbines and electric vehicles EVs.

Data storage and reading: It is also a core element in computer hard drives as part of the alloys in the magnet used to write data.

Barium

Top producers by rank: China, India, and Morocco. 

Its most important uses across different industries:

Oil and Gas Drilling: Barium compounds, such as barite (barium sulfate), are employed in the drilling fluid used in oil and gas exploration to help control pressure and prevent blowouts during drilling operations.

Medical Imaging: Barium sulfate is commonly used in medical diagnostics as a contrast agent for X-ray examinations of the digestive system. Barium

Electronics: It is also used in the production of capacitors and varistors, among other electronic components. It finds applications in telecommunications, sensors, and resonators.

Beryllium

Top producers by rank: United States, China, and Brazil.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Aerospace and Defense: Beryllium's high strength-to-weight ratio and thermal stability, make it valuable for aerospace and defense applications. It is used in the construction of lightweight structural components, satellite mirrors, and X-ray windows for detectors among other hardware.

Nuclear Industry: The metal is used in certain types of nuclear reactors to slow down and redirect neutrons, enhancing the efficiency of nuclear reactions.

Nuclear Weapons: Beryllium is also employed in some nuclear weapons designs as a neutron initiator. Its alpha particles cause a chain reaction that triggers the main nuclear explosion.

Electronics and Telecommunications: It is a critical component in the production of high-performance semiconductors, including integrated circuits and transistors.

Cobalt

Top producers by rank: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, and Russia.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Batteries: Cobalt is a critical component of lithium-ion batteries, which are used in electric vehicles EVs, mobile devices, laptops, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage systems.

Solar Energy: It is highly valuable in the manufacturing of high-efficiency solar cells, especially multijunction solar cells used for space applications.

Aerospace and Defense: Cobalt-based super-alloys are used in the aerospace and defense industries to make parts for aircraft engines, gas turbines, and other high-temperature applications.

Electronics: Cobal is the main element in the manufacturing of hard drives and other data storage devices.

Rechargeable Batteries for Portable Electronics: The mineral is used to produce rechargeable batteries used in portable electronics, power tools, and other applications.

Petroleum and Petrochemicals: Cobalt-based catalysts are used in the refining and production of petroleum and petrochemicals.

Radiotherapy: Cobalt-60, a radioactive isotope of cobalt, is used in radiotherapy for cancer treatment. It emits gamma rays that can be directed at tumors to destroy cancer cells.

Gallium

Top producers by rank: China, Russia, and Ukraine.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Semiconductor Industry: Gallium is a vital component in the production of semiconductors, including integrated circuits and LEDs.

Liquid Metal Cooling: It is also used for cooling electronic components in high-performance systems, such as gaming computers and servers.

Photovoltaics: Gallium is employed in certain types of solar cells, including those used in space applications, due to its ability to convert sunlight into electricity.

Aerospace: The mineral is a vital component in the aerospace industry for its use in semiconductors, sensors, and other electronic components in aircraft and spacecraft.

Cooling Systems: Gallium-based liquid metal alloys are used in advanced cooling systems for high-performance electronic devices.

Germanium

Top producers by rank: China, Russia, and the United States.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Semiconductor Industry: Germanium is used in the production of specialized electronics, such as high-performance transistors and night vision technology.

Optical Fiber Communications: It is also used in fiber-optic communications systems to enable the transmission of light signals over long distances.

Solar Energy: Multi-junction solar cells for space applications heavily rely on the REE. These cells are used in solar panels on satellites and spacecraft because they can efficiently convert sunlight into electricity in space environments.

Detectors and Sensors: Germanium is critical in nuclear physics applications and particle physics experiments.

Thermoelectric Devices: The metal is very efficient in converting waste heat from sources like industrial processes or automobile engines into usable electricity.  

Alloys: Its alloys are very effective in manufacturing high-frequency and high-speed electronic devices that are used in advanced communications, millimeter-wave technologies - used for radar and satellites - quantum computing, and the semiconductor industry.

Lithium

Top producers by rank: Australia, Chile, and China.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Electric Vehicles and Batteries: One of the most well-known applications of lithium is in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. These batteries are used in electric vehicles EVs, smartphones, laptops, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage systems.

Aerospace: Lithium is also used in aerospace applications, including spacecraft and satellites, due to its ability to provide reliable power in extreme environments.

Nuclear Reactors: The metal is crucial in the production of tritium, a main component that produces large amounts of energy in certain nuclear reactors.

Indium

Top producers by rank: China, South Korea, and Japan.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Semiconductors: Indium is used in various electronic devices, such as transistors and thermoelectric devices used to convert heat to energy - which highly minimizes loss of energy.

Photovoltaic Materials: It is also used in the production of photovoltaic materials for solar cells, especially those with advanced energy conversion properties.

Panel Displays: An essential ingredient in the manufacturing of touchscreens, including LCDs and OLED displays.

Erbium

Top producers by rank according to latest public information: China, Australia, and the United States.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Fiber Optic Communications: Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) are used to amplify optical signals in fiber-optic communication networks. They play a crucial role in boosting signals as they travel long distances through optical fibers.

Nuclear Reactors: The rare metal can absorb thermal neutrons and is used as a burnable neutron absorber in some nuclear reactors.

Laser Surgery: Erbium lasers are used in certain surgical procedures for their ability to cut tissue with high precision while minimizing thermal damage to surrounding areas.

Niobium

Top producers by rank: Almost fully dominated by Brazil followed by Canada but with a wide production gap. 

Its most important uses across different industries:

Superalloys: Niobium is used as an alloying element in super-alloys, which are high-strength materials used in aerospace and gas turbine engines.

Electronics: Niobium oxide capacitors are used in electronic devices such as smartphones, computers, and other consumer electronics.

Nuclear Industry: Its alloys are also used in nuclear reactors due to their resistance to corrosion and radiation damage.

Aerospace: The element is employed in aerospace applications for its high-temperature strength and corrosion resistance.

Catalysts: Its compounds are used as catalysts in certain chemical reactions, particularly in the petrochemical industry.

Steel Production: Niobium is added to steel to improve its strength, toughness, and weldability. It's used in construction, pipelines, and other structural applications.

Superconductors: Some of its alloys are also used to make superconducting magnets. These magnets are used in applications like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, particle accelerators, and fusion research.

Tantalum

Top producers by rank: Democratic Republic of Congo, Brazil, and Rwanda.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Electronics: Tantalum is widely used in electronics due to its high capacitance, reliability, and stability over a wide temperature range. It is found in a variety of devices, including smartphones, computers, and automotive electronics.

Aerospace and Defense: It is also extremely valuable in aerospace and defense applications. It's used in components like turbine blades, rocket nozzles, and aircraft structural parts.

Chemical Processing: The mineral is suitable for use in chemical processing equipment, including reactors, heat exchangers, and pipes.

Semiconductors: Tantalum is a crucial element in semiconductor manufacturing and advanced integrated circuits.

Rhenium

Top producers by rank: Chile, United States, and Poland.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Superalloys: Rhenium is a key mineral in superalloys used in high-temperature applications, such as aircraft engines and gas turbine blades.

Catalysts: It is also a catalyst in various chemical reactions, particularly in the production of high-octane gasoline. It's also used in catalytic reforming processes in the petrochemical industry.

Nuclear Reactors: Certain nuclear reactor components are produced using Rhenium due to its resistance to neutron bombardment and high-temperature stability.

Semiconductors: Rhenium can be used in thin films for some semiconductor applications, including deposition onto silicon wafers – an indispensable element to produce chips.

Selenium

Top producers by rank: China, Japan, and Russia. 

Its most important uses across different industries:

Photovoltaic Cells: Selenium is highly used in the production of thin-film solar cells, particularly in copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) solar cells. These cells have the potential to efficiently convert sunlight into electricity.

Electronics: A range of photovoltaic and photoconductive devices, in addition to certain rectifiers and surge protectors, employ the REE. 

Tellurium

Top producers by rank: China, Russia, and Japan. 

Its most important uses across different industries:

Alloys: used in various alloys to improve the machinability, strength, and corrosion resistance of metals. For example, it's added to lead to create lead-tellurium alloys used in electrical applications like power generation and transmission.

Thermoelectric Materials: used in the production of thermoelectric materials that can convert heat into electricity or vice versa. These materials have applications in power generation and waste heat recovery.

Optoelectronics: Tellurium compounds are used in infrared detectors, lasers, and other optoelectronic devices.

Titanium

Top producers by rank: China, Mozambique, and South Africa.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Aerospace and Aviation: Extensively used in the aerospace industry for aircraft components, including airframes, landing gear, and engine components

Defense and Military: It is widely used in military applications, including armored vehicles, naval ships, and aircraft due to its strength and ability to withstand extreme conditions.

Industrial Equipment: Titanium is essential in various industrial equipment such as chemical processing vessels, heat exchangers, and pumps.

Automotive Industry: Also used in performance car parts, such as exhaust systems, suspension components, and engine parts.

Space Exploration: Space missions and spacecraft also employ the REE due to its ability to withstand the harsh conditions of space and its lightweight.

Vanadium

Top producers by rank: China, Russia, and South Africa. 

Its most important uses across different industries:

Steel Production: One of the primary uses of vanadium is as an alloying element in steel production. Vanadium steel is known for its high strength and toughness and is thus used in construction, automobile frames, and tools.

Aerospace: Vanadium is the main component in aerospace applications due to its high-strength properties and ability to withstand extreme temperatures. It's used in aircraft parts, rocket nozzles, and other components.

Batteries: Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are a type of rechargeable battery used for energy storage in renewable energy systems and grid-level applications.

Nuclear Industry: The chemical is also used in some nuclear applications due to its ability to absorb neutrons and its corrosion resistance.

Zirconium

Top producers by rank: Australia, South Africa, and China.

Its most important uses across different industries:

Nuclear Reactors: The element is considered an ideal material for containing and protecting nuclear fuel.

Aerospace and Defense: Zirconium alloys are used in aircraft and spacecraft components due to their high strength, low density, and resistance to corrosion under extreme conditions.

Nuclear Waste Storage: It is also widely used in the storage of nuclear waste due to its ability to encapsulate and immobilize radioactive materials.

Hafnium

Top producers by rank: France, United States, and Russia. 

Its most important uses across different industries:

Nuclear Reactors: Hafnium helps regulate the rate of nuclear reactions and the release of energy in reactors, making it a vital REE in nuclear energy projects.

Gas Turbine Engines: It is also an essential element for gas turbine engines and aerospace applications, including combustion liners and jet engine parts.

Semiconductors: It is employed as an insulating material in semiconductor manufacturing and helps improve the performance of advanced semiconductor devices.

Additive Manufacturing: Hafnium is also a main component in 3D printing and additive manufacturing processes to produce high-performance components for aerospace and other industries.